The construction and wearing of various types of shoes and sandals goes back thousands of years. Our modern shoe owes a great deal to technological advances in construction and manufacturing made in the 19th century: these include foot forms called 'lasts' used to make right and left shoes (shoes were essentially identical - and not very comfortable - for each foot prior to the differentiated last); special sewing machines for attaching the sole to the upper; and the rubber sole, so popular in today's athletic shoes.

Today, shoes that once took days for an artisan to make can be produced in an hour thanks to these and other technological advances. How the modern shoe is constructed depends to a certain degree on the type of shoe being built. Whereas, once there were just a few types of shoes available, such as sandals, work boots and court shoes, today there are shoes designed for hundreds of different purposes in a nearly infinite array of styles. The construction process for an athletic shoe that may involve lots of high-tech materials differs greatly from that of a woman's high heel which has its roots in the court shoes of Europe. Similarly dance slippers, work boots and men's shoes all have construction variations unique to them.

But, at the end of the day, a shoe is a shoe is a shoe and some aspects of their construction remain nearly universal. Like clothes, shoes are made from patterns, and the shoe construction process begins with the mechanized stamping and cutting out of pattern pieces from leather and the other materials used. These patterns can be cut out with either metal dies or, increasingly, computer-controlled laser mechanisms.

Once the pieces of a shoe have all been cut out from the pattern, a machine places each piece over the correct area of a shoe-form or last. The pieces are then cemented in place to hold them steady. This stage of cementing is essentially temporary, as stitching is then added to truly secure and shape the shoe. High heels are generally made in three separate pieces: the sole, the heel and the upper, while flat shoes can be constructed in two pieces because their heels offer less structural complexity and may be solid leather while the heel on a woman's pump is often made from plastic and then covered with leather or other appropriate material.

Athletic shoes, with their increased use of high-tech materials are also often made in several segments but can include hot material being extruded onto a form, as opposed to traditional cutting and stitching. The key sections of the shoe are then joined together using both glues and nails, tacks and stitching, as the shoe's structure requires. A completed shoe is then stamped and labeled for size and brand.

As much as advances in shoe construction technology continue to be made, the shoe construction process will continue to take its cues from traditional styles and construction techniques which have persisted through reinvention across multiple cultures and centuries.

Making sure your shoes fit properly is critical to comfort, good posture and general health. Feeling good is looking good and style should never need to be sacrificed for comfort. For this reason knowing how to determine your proper shoe size in both length and width is important.

Even if you think you already know your proper shoe size, it is important to measure your feet periodically. Our feet grow as we get older and the shoe size you wore in your twenties may no longer be appropriate in your 40s. Additionally, it is important to remember that our feet swell throughout the day, so a more accurate measurement is one taken in the afternoon. Finally, remember to wear the appropriate socks when measuring your feet: women should wear stockings for dress shoes, but wear athletic socks when measuring for sneakers and similar casual shoes. Men should wear dress socks for dress shoes and athletic socks for sporting shoes.

To measure your foot begin by placing your foot on a piece of paper on the floor and tracing around it. Make sure to keep your pencil completely upright at all times while tracing. You may have to tilt your leg forward a bit to trace smoothly around the heel. It is important that you trace both feet. It is common for one foot to be slightly larger than the other (it's usually the non-dominant one; right-handed people usually have a larger left foot) and you shoe size will ultimately be based on the larger foot's measurements.

Once you have your tracing, measure your foot at the longest point. Do not run your ruler on a diagonal. Rather, place it parallel to your tracing and take the measurement that way. To compensate for the width of your pencil, be sure to subtract 1/5th of an inch from the measurement. Compare the length measurement to a shoe size chart (there are dozens available online).

Ascertain the width of your foot in the same fashion, being sure to remember to adjust for the width of your pencil. Shoe width charts are also readily available online. However, choosing the shoe width for your foot can be difficult. Many shoes no longer come in widths designated by letter. Regular and Wide are often all that are available in women's shoes. Regular is usually a B width for women. Women with broader feet may wish to try a Wide when available. Narrow has also commonly replaced A through AAA sizing for women. Men's shoes more commonly use the traditional letter designation for widths. D generally translates to a Regular width in men's shoes, with Narrow and Wide being on either side.

While shoe sizing is consistent within countries, shoe sizes are named differently in different places. Luckily, conversions charts are readily available online. It is also important to remember that different shoes are cut in different ways and not every shoe is right for every foot. When trying on shoes it is important to walk in them to test for comfort and fit.

While they can't necessarily work miracles, comfort shoes provide the wearer with benefits such as additional padding, observation of pressure points, wider soles and better support that improve the walking experience.

When you have a medical condition that makes walking uncomfortable, comfort shoes come to the rescue with special construction that can help make walking easy again. While they can't necessarily work miracles, they do provide the wearer with benefits such as additional padding, observation of pressure points, wider soles and better support that improve the walking experience.

Sometimes referred to as "orthopedic," comfort shoes are produced by a wide variety of manufacturers, such as Dr. Scholl's, Comfort One and even New Balance. In some cases, they are geared toward specific conditions that consumers might be dealing with, such as diabetes, while in some, they are designed for the average consumer who might need some
extra protection against the rigors of walking.

For example, Arcopedico is one of the most popular manufacturers of comfort shoes, and they provide options in a wide variety of styles, colors and widths. Their most notable feature is the polyurethane outsole, which helps absorb the impact of every footfall while providing additional traction to avoid slipping and falling. Other companies use similar materials
for shock absorption and traction.

You'll also find that comfort shoes provide more room for the wearer, making it easier to stave off injuries to the foot, such as calluses, Dansko, for example, produces occupational comfort shoes that have Thermoplastic toe boxes that simultaneously provide the toes with more room and provide reinforcement for the shoe itself. Dansko also uses PVC for the inner
frame, which protects the entire foot without sacrificing flexibility.

Dr. Scholl's also provides innovative designs in comfort shoes, such as their Women's Client mary janes, which have cushy memory foam insoles for shock absorption as well as suede leather uppers for maximum flexibility while walking.

Soft materials such as gel, memory foam and leather are the cornerstones of comfort shoes, as they allow the foot to move freely regardless of the speed or gait at which the wearer walks. In many cases, these materials are combined with reinforcements, such as the PVC in the Dansko shoes, providing support for the moments when you need it most. Some are also made with different variations of canvas, which is both breathable and durable.

Additionally, most comfort shoes are built upon a foundation of extreme traction because consumers who buy these types of shoes are more prone to slip-and-fall accidents. Rubber tread is the most frequently used material for this type of feature, and can vary depending on the amount of slip resistance required for the shoe. Cross-hatched tread is generally the most effective, and is common with tennis shoes, walking shoes and sometimes even
sandals.

And finally, clogs are the latest style in comfort shoes, and are preferable to many closed-toe versions because of their breathability. In years past, comfort shoes were often considered ugly and were easily identifiable, but now manufacturers are focusing on style as much as function.Clogs often have adjustable heels that allow for swelling and other changes to
the foot during the day, and are sometimes just as comfortable as your standard
walking shoe.

Now that Memorial Day has passed and we're officially in the summer fashion season sandals are the main footwear choice for most of us in the Northern Hemisphere. This should hardly be surprising because not only are sandals comfortable, their ancient. In fact, many of the earliest shoes we have historical evidence of were made in this style. Sandals have been found as part of ritual burials and were even depicted in prehistoric art. In fact, many of the styles of sandals popular today have endured for thousands of years thanks to their simplicity and grace.

The earliest sandals were all-purpose shoes created by our prehistoric ancestors. By the time of the Greeks and Romans, sandals, while still ubiquitous, were constructed from a variety of materials and available in an array of styles. The "thong" or "flip-flop" seems to have emerged in Egypt, although the style was popular throughout the ancient world. Later the Roman empire gave us everything from the practical sandals of a working man, to dress sandals for women and highly durable sandals for warriors. In Japan, resilient and surprisingly light-weight wooden geta that towered as high as twelve inches elevated pedestrians above the mire of the public streets.

The sandal and its many sub-genres has continued to diversify in the modern era. Where sandals were once a casual-only statement and flip-flops were strictly for the beach, discussion on appropriate sandals for the office can now be found in the pages not just of fashion magazines but also of mainstream newspapers, including The Wall Street Journal.

Today sandals are made out of an ever broader array of natural material such as wood, leather and silk, and increasingly synthetics that allow for more support, cushioning and structure. We have sandals for the beach, boardroom and ballroom as well as the hiking trail, the running track and the gym. And because many sandals are easier to construct than closed shoes, their affordability means most people own multiple pairs.

This year's sandal trend, which started to make its appearance last summer, is a revived gladiator sandal. Some of these shoes have open toes, while others are woven over the toe and merely open on the sides, making them much cleaner for city wear. Heights vary too, with the straps and buckles ending at the ankle or in some cases going as high as the knee; luckily for us modern technology builds a zipper into most of today's sandals in this style, making them much quicker to get on and off.

When it comes to sandals it seems likely that we'll keep doing what we've already been doing for thousands of years -- copying the past and enhancing it with modern improvements in efficiency and comfort. As for style, it looks like the ancients had it covered.

While most women will go to great lengths to support their high-heel wearing habit, few realize the unhealthy impact on their legs and pampered toes. Enjoy life in the high-heeled society with these six tips.

High heels may be a closet staple for many, but any health guru will tell you to steer clear of the stilettos and wedges to prevent damage to leg muscles, save your knees, and reduce the chance of blisters on the feet later in life. Is it really time to give up the 4" pencil-thin heels in favor of good health?

Most shoe addicts will beg to differ, but thankfully, there are ways to protect those legs and feet without compromising on style. Consider these tips and strategies to enjoy life in the high-heeled society, without falling into an unhealthy habit:

1. Change that strut- Walking 'normally' in high heels is an easy way to cause damage to the feet and lower legs. Your steps need to be much shorter than usual, so it's best to skip your model-like strides and stick with the reality runway; plan on taking slower, smaller steps and avoid shifting your weight during the walk. Good posture also helps; keep that spine in alignment to help you balance your weight with ease.

2. Massage away pain- A day in heels may be a day well-lived, but it's still going to take its toll on your ankles, calves and knees. Enjoy some well-deserved TLC with a quick foot soak, or invest in a foot massage treatment at the local spa to manage aches, pain, and inflammation of the joints with ease.

3. Wear the right size- Many women go by the mantra of 'the tighter, the better when it comes to heels and shoes, but this can cause dozens of foot problems - not to mention the outcropping of unsightly blisters. Make sure your feet are comfortably stationed inside the shoe when you walk and sit down, and buy a size larger than usual if you need to.

4. Look for an adjustable strap- Adjustable ankle straps can give you some extra support, and help you balance better in those too-tall heels. Adjust the buckle to fit snugly around your ankles so that your feet are planted firmly and securely in your shoes for maximum comfort.

5. Give those calves a workout- Building up muscles and strength in the calves and thighs can help you balance better on even the skinniest heels. Make sure to stretch and strengthen calves on a regular basis so you can keep up with the demands of your next pair of heels.

6. Don't be a heel digger!- Avoid balancing your weight entirely on the heel while standing, and shift your weight to the ball of your foot instead. Digging your heels may be a good assertiveness strategy, but will damage your shoes - and your ankles.

Walking tall is every woman's right, but knowing how to pull it off without damaging the legs and feet is a top priority! Exercise your right to wear those high heels with these six strategies, and you'll be able to step out in style, without the pain.

From 5" wedge heels to pencil-thin stilettos, women teetering on today's lineup of pumps and high heels are busy trading fashion for comfort - and may be trotting on the edge of disaster.

From 5-inch wedge heels to pencil-thin stilettos, women teetering on today's lineup of pumps and high heels are busy trading fashion for comfort - and may be trotting on the edge of disaster.

Creating an illusion of long, model-like legs is just one reason why many favor the high heel over flats. Shoe manufacturers continue to design women's shoes with this 'need' in mind; still, it's a balancing act that few women really master, and most risk the health of their legs in favor of the latest fashionable pair. While kitten heels are making a comeback on the fashion circuit, the high heel reigns supreme on runways around the globe. Is comfort a factor in the design of these eye-catching shoes? Not likely.

Why the High Heel?

High heels have become the shoe of choice for shoe mavens in the last 60 years, but the stilettos and high heel pumps have become the epitome of shoes for females since the late '80s. It's the shoe that not only makes the legs appear longer but also changes the posture of the wearer, makes the feet look smaller and defines the glute muscles to create a trim, tight and toned look - and all without pantyhose and shapewear. Is it any wonder that women opt for the super high arch?

Some of the world's most fascinating pumps can be found in museums and emporiums of famous Italian shoe designers in Europe. These pumps weren't meant for walking - just admiring from afar. They're designed for maximum eye-appeal with super-sculpted arches, bright patent leather designs and even trimmings such as fur, sequins and rhinestone embellishments. Since the trends take the forefront of design, the comfort factor usually ceases to exist - few women care to admit how comfortable these shoes really are. Today's inspired designers are capturing the essence of the too-tall heels for their own creations.

Designers Who Embrace the High Heel Trend

Take the works of Vince Camuto, for instance; the collection includes a range of booties with stiletto appeal and a peep toe design, a 4-inch heel that's skinny enough to require some practice sessions before trotting out on the pavement.

Giuseppe Zanottikeeps things in line with sexy pumps and wedges with a fresh, modern twist. From cow-print Mary Jane pumps with a super skinny high heel to fur-trimmed boots with extra height, this is one designer that appeals to women of all ages and tastes - as long as they're willing to trot along with a few extra inches.

Alexander McQueen offers plenty of unique styles and designs fresh from the runway, a mix of classy, feminine, eye-catching styles with 4-inch+ heels more often than not. From strappy sandals for special occasions to basic pumps for the office, the styles from this designer are sure to turn a few heads on any given day.

A quick glance at the latest fashionable pumps shows plenty of awe-inspiring designs but few are designed with comfort in mind. As long as women willingly squeeze into a pair of 5-inch+ heels that make them feel great and look 10 pounds slimmer, shoe manufacturers will continue to churn out fresh designs with the latest trends and styles in mind.

Learn how loafers developed from the Native American mocassin shoe design.

Many styles of modern footwear evolved from ancient or primitive footwear designs. The loafer, for example, which has been a popular casual-dress shoe since the 1930s, actually evolved from the Native American shoe called the moccasin. The moccasin was popular with many tribes in the United States because it allowed the wearer to feel the texture of the ground while at the same time protecting their feet from sharp or coarse terrain, as well as from extremely hot or cold ground temperatures. The word "moccasin" was derived from the Algonquian word makasin, which simply means, shoe made from deer skin.

The Birth of the Loafer
While the design of the modern loafer is modeled after the Native American moccasin, the first loafers were actually based on pictures published in 1932 or 1933 in Esquire of a Norwegian slip-on shoe worn by a dairy farmer. These pictures inspired the Spaulding family, who had ties to the leather and lumber industry, to create a slip-on shoe called a "Pony." By 1934 a bootmaker from Maine named John R. Bass modified the slip-on design to include a strap that crossed the vamp and that was capable of holding a coin. This was the birth of the Penny Loafer. However, instead of a penny, a dime was usually carried in the woman's loafer so that she could call home if her date got too fresh.

The Fashion of Loafers

Loafers were such a versatile and comfortable shoe that they were worn by both sexes as both a casual and a dress shoe. Women's loafer styles tended to revolve around the basic penny loafer design, however, tassel-topped loafers also were fashionable for women. When women wore loafers they were usually paired with knee socks, especially during the 1950s and '60s.

Men tended to wear tassel-topped loafers instead of penny loafers. College men during the '60s and '70s tended to wear loafers without socks, especially when tramping on campus, when going out dancing or just wearing them with a pair of jeans. The tassel-top loafer eventually became a fashion symbol for the legal profession when they became a staple for lawyers' wardrobes. In this case, a dark dress sock was paired with the loafer.

One of the hot shoe styles for women today is the ballet flat. But, like most popular shoe styles, it is hardly a new invention. Rather,the modern ballet flat has evolved both out of the dance shoe it is named after, and the women's slippers that have been fashionable periodically throughout history.

The ballet flat takes its name from ballet, of course. The modern shoe can be described either as a more structured version of a traditional ballet shoe or a less structured and more flexible version of the pointe shoe, but constructed without the toe-box that allows dancers to elevate themselves on the very tips of their toes. There are also ballet shoes with heels known as character shoes as well as soft slippers with slight heels worn by dance teachers for comfort. Ballet flats are named as they are to differentiate themselves from these two types of ballet shoes to which they are unrelated.

While today we think of ballet as a performance art, ballet steps were once a part of social dancing. In the Georgian and Regency eras (1795 - 1825) social dancing involved many vigorous ballet steps and everyone well-positioned in society sought out dancing masters to help them perfect their form and technique. At this time, the correct shoe for a formal ball was
not today's high heel (which was also popular in earlier eras), but a beautifully adorned dance slipper, usually made out of leather. This was the precursor to the ballet flat.

These slippers weren't just for women, but men as well, and there are a number of Regency-period illustrations showing a man on his way to a formal event with his dance shoes tucked into his back pocket.

Today's structured ballet flats acknowledge the active lifestyle of women while also preserving the delicacy, dance allusions and comfort of the dance shoe from which it evolved. Synthetic materials, cloth and leather are all common materials used in ballet flats. Today's ballet flats are defined by their almost non-existent heel and rounded toe. The shoes range from studier replications of ballet slippers (right down to a soft pink or peach
color and the tiny bow centered over the base of the toes) to flats that merely invoke dance without actively representing it.

While ballet flats have often been popular in the last 30 years, it is only recently that they have become acceptable for formal occasions. While many have viewed the emergence of the ballet flat at formal events as a casual concession to comfort, this show actually has a proud
history as a part of formal attire and women armed with this history should be confident in their choice of a ballet flat for dressy occasions.

Learn all about shoelaces and how they added to the development of foot wear.

The shoelace is one of the oldest components of footwear. However, while it is presumed that even cavemen used some sort of shoelace to keep their footwear on their feet, evidence of this is missing because most laces were made from materials that were biodegradable like leather, plant fibers and sinew. What we do know about the history of the shoelace is that they were an important part of human migration and survival.

As Far Back As We Can Go...History of the Shoelace

One of the earliest pairs of shoelaces ever found was found on a Bronze Age man called Otzi the Iceman. Otzi, who lived over 5,000 years ago, had boots that were remarkably advanced for the Bronze Age. They were made up of a leather shell, internal insulation and a pair of shoelaces made from string composed of lime bark. This example of early shoelaces is probably a very good representation of how laces were used by early man to bind materials together and to secure footwear to people's feet.

The development of shoelaces was probably one of the first technological advancements made by humans. There are several reasons why early humans needed a shoelace. First of all, because they didn't have thick pads on the soles of their feet they needed an artificial foot pad that would stay in place and provide protection from sharp rocks, cold weather and other hazards. Secondly, as humans migrated away from the comfort zone around the equator, climate became a serious issue that posed a threat to their survival. As they crossed into colder climates they needed footwear that could be stuffed with insulation like fur and bound tightly to their legs to prevent snow and water from filling up their boots. Just think, without shoelaces, humans most likely would never have survived their migration into Asia and Europe, and most likely would not have survived the last Ice Age.

History of Modern Shoelaces

While a primitive shoelace has existed since prehistoric times, the shoelace that we know and love today wasn't developed until about the 1100s. The Museum of London has several specimens of early 12th century shoelaces that were designed to work in tandem with eyelets or lace hooks. The development of this modern shoelace system made it possible for shoe and boot designs to evolve. Shoelace systems allowed shoes and boots to be mass produced in standard sizes, as opposed to being custom made for each person. This advance was made possible by the lacing systems ability to tighten a shoe or boot as much or as little as needed to fit the person's foot, ankle and calf perfectly.

The next major advancement of shoelaces was the addition of synthetic fibers to the shoelace. Synthetic fibers allowed shoelaces to be modified to compliment the design of the shoe. Generally, synthetic fiber shoelaces looked better than natural fiber laces because they didn't fray as easy and they could more easily be died. Synthetic fiber shoelaces also tended to last longer than natural fiber laces did, making them a better investment for shoe owners.

One of the biggest advancements in the shoelace's design was the addition of shoelace tips. These tips, which could be made from plastic, brass, copper or some other type of metal, made it easier to thread shoelaces in shoe eyelets. These tips also helped to prevent fraying of the shoelace and helped to maintain and improve the overall aesthetics of the shoe lace.

Shoelaces have played an important role in human evolution. Just think what the world would be like if the modern shoelace had never been invented. For example, just think how sports would have been affected if athletic shoes did not have shoelaces. Also think about how sports' records and performance would have been affected without lace-up shoes. It's not a pretty picture, is it?