Many people think of the cartoon “Bullwinkle” when they think of a moose. Hikers in the northern U.S. and Canada who’ve actually encountered moose have an entirely different view. If you’re hiking where they both live, you’re much more likely to be attacked by a moose than a bear.

Moose aren’t shy, like deer. They’re territorial and aggressive, and their size – up to 6 ½ feet at the shoulder – and weight – as much as 1500 pounds – make them extremely dangerous. They have sharp hooves and impressive antlers. The two likeliest times of year for moose encounters are spring, when females have calves, and fall, when bull moose are looking for mates.

Never get between a female moose and her calf. If you come upon them on the trail, back up slowly and wait for them to move on; generally, they will. If a mother and calf wander into your camp, again, try to back away. Moose show aggression in several ways. They may toss or swing their heads, stamp the ground, lay their ears back, or actually charge you. Some of these charges are bluffs, and the moose will veer away at the last moment. But since most of us can’t read their minds, you need to take a charge seriously, and try to get behind a large boulder. The moose will then, hopefully, decide you’re not a threat.

In the fall, bull moose are just as deadly as females in the spring. Anything that moves is a potential rival. They’ve even charged locomotives, so if they charge you, don’t assume they’ll back off. If you can’t get away, roll yourself into a ball, cover your head, and don’t try to get up. You’ll probably get kicked, but if you don’t move at all until the moose has left the area, you’ll survive. A broken rib is better than a smashed skull. If you have time, swing your backpack over your head to protect it. Pull your hiking boots up to protect your groin if possible.

Remember that you’re in their territory, show them respect, and you’ll survive a moose encounter.

If you’re hiking in areas that are part of a wolf pack’s territory, will you be attacked by wolves? You’re more likely to be attacked by bears or cougars, or even struck by lightning. But a wolf attack isn’t impossible, so be prepared.

A group of Norwegian scientists researched wolf attacks in Europe, Asia and North America in 2002, and found that most attacks occurred before the 20th century, and in the past 50 years, there have been only 17 people killed in Europe, and at that time, none in North America. In 2005, a Canadian, walking alone where food dumps from energy development were common, was killed and eaten by four wolves.

There are four possible reasons for wolf attacks. The first, and the probable cause of the Canadian death, is habituation: wolves become accustomed to humans, begin to associate them with food, and lose their fear of humans. Rabies is the second reason, but rabies is rare in North American wolves. The third reason is predation. While a rabid wolf will bite savagely and then move on, a healthy wolf kills and eats its prey. Typically the victims of predation are children and women, and it’s more common in Asia than here. The fourth reason is defense. A cornered wolf may bite, but rarely kills.

Stay safe by remaining in a group. Avoid being prey by making lots of noise while hiking and setting up camp. Carry a large backpack to make yourself look larger, and spread out your arms and jacket, if you happen to see a wolf, to look even larger and scarier. Make sure your tent has a lantern because wolves don’t like light – but don’t shine it directly into their eyes, as that can trigger an attack. For worst case scenarios, carry a mountaineering axe for self defense. Finally, make a fire in front of your tent (if the area isn’t under a burn ban) and keep it going all night. Wolves fear fire. Don’t feed wolves, or leave food out, and report anyone who does to park or forest rangers.

(Sources: Linnell, J. D. C., R. Andersen, Z. Andersone, L. Balciauskas, J. C. Blanco, L. Boitani, S. Brainerd, U. Breitenmoser, I. Kojola, L. Liberg, J. Løe, H.Okarma, H. C. Pedersen, C. Promberger, K. Sand, E. J. Solberg, H. Valdmann, and P. Wabakken. 2002. The fear of wolves: A review of wolf attacks on humans. Norsk Intitutt for NaturforskningOppdragsmelding: 731:1-65; http://www.wolftrust.org.uk/a-wkp5-linnell-results.html; http://www.wolf.org/wolves/news/2005releases/123005_wolfattack.asp ; http://www.wolftrust.org.uk/faqpeople.html )

A serious fall when you’re miles from a medical facility is one of the biggest dangers of back country sports. The worst injury, the one that’s impossible to treat where the fall occurs, is a spinal cord injury. As recently as 50 years ago, spinal injuries were almost always fatal, and in the back country they still can be.

Symptoms of spinal cord injuries include pain or a stinging feeling somewhere along the spine; loss of movement of extremities; numbness and/or loss of the ability to feel heat, cold, or touch on a body part; muscle or limb spasms; and difficulty in breathing or coughing. The uninjured individuals may see that the head or another part of the spine is at an unnatural angle.

The first thing you can do is the “ABCD” of emergency medicine: check that the airway is open and the injured person is breathing; check the pulse (circulation), and check for disability (ask if the injured person can move, if he can feel his legs, what hurts, if he knows where he is and who you are, etc.).

If you suspect an injury to any part of the spinal cord, it’s absolutely critical that you do not move the injured person at all. Keep his head and spine where they are, and use T-shirts or towels or whatever you have in your packs, or even rocks, to ensure his head and spine can’t and don’t move. If the individual is conscious, keep talking to him and keep him talking. Put a sleeping bag over him to keep him warm and prevent shock.

If you’re able to call out on a cell phone or satellite phone, call for an emergency medical helicopter to fly in for the injured person. If not, then send someone in your group to where the cell phone works, or the nearest medical facility, as quickly as possible, and have them send the chopper. Someone else should stay with him. Don’t try to move him; at best, he could be paralyzed for life; at worst, you’ll kill him. Stay safe out there.

For any outdoor enthusiast, dehydration can become a major problem, especially if you are caught miles away from civilization on a hiking trail without adequate water. In “Dune,” the 1984 film based on the novels of Frank Herbert, staying properly hydrated becomes a daily, life-or-death challenge.

Kyle MacLachlan plays Paul Atreides, the son of the very powerful and influential Duke Leto (Jurgen Prochnow). Paul and his father journey to the planet Arrakis, a dry, desert planet that is a prime source of a substance called the “Spice Melange.” By ingesting Melange, you could increase your consciousness, but eating too much causes your eyes to glow blue. Those that overdose on spice gain great powers, but their bodies also turn warped and twisted. After his father is murdered by a rival family, Paul and his mother flee into the deserts of Arrakis, wearing only an all-purpose garment called a “Stillsuit.” Worn by the Fremen, the native people of Arrakis, a Stillsuit reclaims and recycles fluids typically lost through perspiration and other bodily functions. By wearing this device, someone lost in the desert could survive for days, even weeks, without additional water.

Water is such a crucial commodity in “Dune,” in fact, that when someone dies, their bodily fluids are reclaimed and stored in hidden caves across the surface of Arrakis. When Paul does battle with one of the Fremen, he becomes the guardian of all the water that his body had once contained.

A film that makes you wish you had a canteen or a microfilter close by, “Dune” is among the ultimate outdoor films produced during the 1980’s. Hiking and climbing gear has come a long way in recent years, but nothing can compare to the fictional Stillsuit. Drinking water produced by one’s own bodily wastes is a unique experience, to say the least, but on Arrakis, the alternative was a slow, painful death from dehydration.

“Dune” didn’t do that well in its initial theatrical run, but it is a safe bet that soft drink sales at theaters skyrocketed during every screening of this very dry film.

Driving south from Reno, NV, on US Highway 395, you’ll see a foothill that looks like a chunk was torn out of it. The hill is Slide Mountain; a block slide occurred: a single large mass of material gave way and slid downslope. You’re more likely to encounter a fall when hiking or climbing, where rocks and boulders detach from a cliff or steep slope and roll downhill.

Landslides can and do happen in all 50 states of the U.S., and kill between 25 and 50 people each year. Major landslides and mudslides have killed hundreds to thousands of people in countries including Mexico, India, and China when slides hit populated villages. If a landslide occurs in the backcountry, it can still kill, but is less likely to if you’re prepared.

To survive a landslide, you need to know where they’re likely to occur, warning signs and what to do if one happens. Landslides are most common in areas where fires have destroyed ground-gripping vegetation, areas where there’s lots of water, from quick snow melt or heavy rains, and areas of volcanic activity – which includes areas around hot springs and steam vents as well as actual volcanoes. Some warning signs are seepages of water in usually dry areas, new fissures in slopes or boulders, or boulders appearing farther apart or closer together.

Your first warning is an increasingly loud rumbling followed by a trickle of rocks falling around you. The rocks will be followed by more and larger material, so get out of the way. Move sideways as far and quickly as possible, then roll yourself into a small ball and hold your pack over your head. If you’re the first to notice the fall, shout loudly to your party. Once the fall stops, keep calling out until your group members find each other.

If you’re climbing, always wear a helmet. If you’re hiking, wear sturdy boots , carry a durable and solid backpack , and carry along a jacket . Even if it’s not cold, the jacket can be used to help prevent shock if someone in your party is injured.

Most hikers don’t think about plague before they head out. But according to the National Park Service, if you’re hiking in the southern Rocky Mountains, Arizona, New Mexico, or parts of California, maybe you should.

Bubonic plague is still alive and well around the world, including in the U.S. Although only 10 to 15 people die of it per year in the U.S., according to the CDC, there’s always a danger to hikers in an infected area. Plague is caused by a bacterium called Yersinia pestis. The bacteria are carried by fleas that bite rodents, cats, and humans. You can get bubonic plague if you’re bitten by an infected animal, or, more rarely, if you breathe little drops of water infected with the bacteria.

Symptoms of bubonic plague start to show 2 to 6 days after infection. They can include fever, weakness or dizziness, chills, and swollen and painful lymph nodes. Called buboes, these can blacken as the disease progresses, explaining the name Black Plague and bubonic plague. Some people get pneumonia as a first symptom. The infection quickly spreads to the rest of the body. If an infected person isn’t promptly treated with antibiotics, he can die.

You can avoid getting the plague by following a few tips. First, if a small animal like a prairie dog or a rabbit or bunny approaches you, don’t pet it or go near it. Next, don’t pick up dead animals. If you must move an animal’s corpse, wear long sleeves and gloves and wash both your hands and the gloves with an anti-bacterial cleanser. Keep your campsite free of attractions to plague-carrying animals, such as piles of brush or rocks they could nest in, or left-over food or other garbage they could eat. Don’t take your dog or cat with you, as they can become infected much more easily than you. If you must bring them along, check them for fleas frequently. Wear insect repellent yourself. Wear long pants or jeans to protect yourself, and high sturdy hiking boots to avoid animal bites.

(Sources: http://www.nps.gov/archive/waca/pphtml/subenvironmentalfactors10.html, http://www.nps.gov/wica/naturescience/resource-ramblings-july-2008.htm, http://www.nps.gov/romo/planyourvisit/yoursafety.htm,http://www.cdc.gov/..., http://www.cdc.gov/healthypets/diseases/plague.htm )

Tornadoes are one of nature’s most deadly acts. While they’re most common in tornado alley — the area from just into the southeast to Texas and north, up the Great Plains — tornadoes can strike almost anywhere, and have struck in almost every state in the lower 48, as well as Canada and Mexico. With tornadoes, it’s not just the wind, but also the debris that wind is carrying, that can be a major danger. It takes some planning to survive one outdoors.

Before you start your hiking trip, check the weather. A tornado “watch” means it’s possible there will be a tornado; a tornado “warning” means a tornado has been spotted, so if you haven’t left yet, go to your basement or an interior room. If you head out during a tornado watch, take a battery-operated radio with you, along with a good flashlight and a rain jacket , and watch the sky. Before a tornado, the sky turns dark, the light takes on an unnatural greenish-yellow color, and you may hear a sound like a freight train.

If the sky changes, or funnel clouds begin to drop from black clouds, you need to get to some kind of shelter immediately. Don’t take shelter under a bridge or trees; they won’t protect you from flying debris or hail. If there are no buildings nearby, look for the lowest place you can find. It might be a ditch, and if you’re very lucky, you might find a culvert. Hunker down in that low spot, put your arms over your head for protection, and stay as close to the ground as you can. Keep your backpack on and securely fastened, as it can help protect you from debris.
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Once the tornado has passed, listen to your radio again. If the danger is past, head for home or make a camp. If there’s still danger, use the time you have to find a better safe spot, like a cave, ditch, or culvert. You may be bruised, but if you stay flat, you’ll survive the worst that nature can throw at you.

(Sources: http://www.fema.gov/hazard/tornado/index.shtm , http://www.insure.com/articles/homeinsurance/tornado-tips.html , http://www.outdoorlife.com/photos/gallery/survival/warm-weather/2009/04/... )

Frostbite, or freezing of body tissues, is one of the worst dangers of winter hiking, camping, or skiing. To survive, learn to prevent it and treat it.

The cold isn’t the only factor in frostbite. Windchill, moisture, skin exposure, body type, dehydration, previous frostbite, and use of alcohol or caffeine can all contribute to frostbite. Another factor is your body’s response to cold. When you start getting cold, blood flow increases to your core to prevent hypothermia, leaving less blood to your extremities. If hypothermia is a possibility, treat that first.

Frostbite falls into two categories, superficial and deep. Superficial frostbite causes you to feel burning and tingling when surface tissue starts freezing. Sometimes called frostnip, only the top layers of skin freezes and it’s usually reversible. Your skin will look waxy and pale, and become numb, but deeper tissues stay unfrozen. Deep frostbite can affect your muscles and bones; the affected area will feel hard and look dead and blackened.

The first parts of your body endangered by frostbite are fingers, toes, ears, and nose. Wear insulated gloves, warm i nsulated boots , a warm hat that covers your ears, and something to cover your nose. Consider wearing a pair of lightweight gloves inside your regular gloves, and look for wool socks that will stay warm when wet. Make sure the socks, gloves, and any other clothes aren’t too tight. Constricting clothes contribute to frostbite. If you feel numbness or tingling in these body parts, head for shelter and warmth.

If you’re far from medical help, start with first aid. Gently but quickly warm the affected area, holding it against someone else’s warm body if necessary. Do not rub the frostbitten area; that can cause cell damage. If possible, put the affected part into warm, not hot, water. Wrap the affected area with sterile gauze from a first aid kit . Put cotton between fingers and toes so they don’t rub against each other. Put dry warmed feet into booties to keep them warm. Give the injured person ibuprofen and warm fluids. Finally, if you’re not absolutely sure that you can keep the frost-bitten area from freezing again, don’t try to warm it. Keep it frozen and get to medical assistance as quickly as possible.

Untreated, frostbitten fingers, toes, hands and feet may become gangrenous and need amputation. Don’t take frostbite lightly if you want to survive.

(Sources: http://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/frostbite , http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/first-aid-frostbite/FA00023 , http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/fitness/HQ01681 , http://princeton.edu/~oa/safety/hypocold.shtml )